TOEFL READING 12 - TEST 3

The philosophical debates that Plato and Aristotle ____ raised issues which modern psychology continues to investigate.

• having
• have
• has
• had

The contrast between Plato’s belief in innate knowledge and Aristotle’s view of the blank slate ____ centuries of intellectual discourse.

• shapes
• shaping
• shaped
• was shaping

Only after the Renaissance ____ European philosophers revisiting ancient arguments and developing new frameworks.

• did
• were
• had
• do

The idea of free will, which Descartes once ____ with the pineal gland theory, was later disproven by science.

• support
• supporting
• supported
• supports

The dissections conducted by Descartes, ____ that nerves control muscles, advanced biological psychology.

• reveals
• revealing
• revealed
• reveal

Not until the nineteenth century ____ psychology gain legitimacy, when Wundt and James founded laboratories.

• did
• had
• has
• was

The early philosophers, who ____ empirical methods, relied on speculation instead of systematic testing.

• lack
• lacked
• lacks
• lacking

The groundwork for psychology as a scientific discipline, laid jointly by Wundt and James, ____ a turning point in history.

• marks
• marking
• marked
• mark

The recognition that the mind is distinct from the body, which Descartes ____ as dualism, shaped later debates.

• argues
• argued
• argue
• arguing

The theories proposed by Locke and Rousseau, ____ experience as the source of knowledge, challenged Plato’s innatism.

• emphasizing
• emphasizes
• emphasized
• emphasize