Understanding Covalent Bond Cleavage

What is covalent bond cleavage?

• Covalent bond cleavage refers to the attraction between two atoms.

• Covalent bond cleavage is the formation of a covalent bond between two atoms.

• Covalent bond cleavage is the breaking of a covalent bond between two atoms.

• Covalent bond cleavage is the process of sharing electrons between atoms.

Define homolytic cleavage and provide an example.

• Homolytic cleavage involves the formation of a stable ion, e.g., NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻.

• Homolytic cleavage is the simultaneous breaking of two bonds, e.g., O₂ → 2 O.

• Homolytic cleavage is the breaking of a bond where both atoms lose an electron, e.g., H₂ → H⁺ + H⁻.

• Homolytic cleavage is the breaking of a bond where each atom retains one electron, e.g., Cl₂ → 2 Cl•.

Define heterolytic cleavage and provide an example.

• An example of heterolytic cleavage is the breaking of a carbon-carbon bond in ethane.

• An example of heterolytic cleavage is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen.

• An example of heterolytic cleavage is the dissociation of hydrogen chloride (HCl) into H+ and Cl- ions.

• Heterolytic cleavage involves the equal sharing of electrons between atoms.

What is a free radical and how is it formed?

• A free radical is a reactive atom or molecule with unpaired electrons, formed by the breaking of chemical bonds.

• A free radical is a stable atom with paired electrons, formed by the addition of energy.

• A free radical is a type of ion formed by the loss of protons during a reaction.

• A free radical is a non-reactive molecule that does not participate in chemical reactions.

What is a carbocation and what role does it play in reactions?

• A carbocation is a negatively charged carbon ion that stabilizes reactions.

• A carbocation is a stable molecule that does not participate in chemical reactions.

• A carbocation is a type of enzyme that catalyzes organic reactions.

• A carbocation is a positively charged carbon ion that acts as an intermediate in various organic reactions.

Define electrophile and give an example of an electrophilic species.

• Nucleophile (e.g., HO⁻)

• Neutral molecule (e.g., H₂O)

• Anion (e.g., Cl⁻)

• Carbocation (e.g., CH₃⁺)

Define nucleophile and provide an example of a nucleophilic species.

• Hydroxide ion (HO⁻) is an example of a nucleophilic species.

• Water (H₂O) is an example of a nucleophilic species.

• Chloride ion (Cl⁻) is an example of a nucleophilic species.

• Sodium ion (Na⁺) is an example of a nucleophilic species.

Compare the stability of primary, secondary, and tertiary carbocations.

• Primary > Tertiary > Secondary

• Secondary > Tertiary > Primary

• Tertiary = Secondary = Primary

• Tertiary > Secondary > Primary

What factors influence the stability of free radicals?

• Factors influencing the stability of free radicals include resonance, electron-withdrawing/donating groups, steric hindrance, and molecular structure.

• Presence of water molecules

• Temperature and pressure conditions

• Type of solvent used

Predict the type of reaction: CH₂=CHCH₃ + Br₂ , CH₂Cl₂ → CH₂(Br)CH(Br)CH₃. Is it a substitution, addition, or elimination reaction?

• addition

• decomposition

• substitution

• oxidation