Right Realism and Left Realism

unless ‘incivilities’ are kept minimal, then wider more serious crimes will follow.

• Jon Clarke

• Wilson and Kelling

• Charles Murray

• Alan Walker

Argues criminals will engage in crime if the benefits outweigh the costs.

• Wilson and kelling

• Clarke and Coleman

• Charles Murray

• Jon Clarke

Advocated ‘target hardening’, the pre-emptive identification and targeting of areas or groups

• Wilson and kelling

• Clarke and Coleman

• Jon Clarke

Argues that the phase of dependency on benefits is temporary.

• Alan Walker

• Ellis Cashmore

Argues the underclass are particularly insufficiently integrated into society’s norms

• Alan Walker

• Charles Murray

• Coleman and Clarke

• Jon Clarke

a key problem with policing was a distinctive subculture that shaped the way officers perceived the world, in terms of a canteen culture that saw the typical criminal as young, male and black. 

• Skolinick

• Reiner

notes how in the US young black people have extremely strong consumerist and materialist values and desire high status,these goals are often denied legitimately through 'blocked opportunities'

• Nightingale

• Gilroy

• Hall

crime is not caused not by poverty but an awareness of the sheer scale of difference

• Runciman

• Hall

• MAYHEW, PIPER AND WAVE

all found the police accepted the existence of a black criminality and were discriminatory in their treatment of different groups. Police officers used ‘colour as a criterion for stops’ and were unapologetic about targeting black people.

• SMITH, GRAY,HOLDWAY

• Young

• MAYHEW, PIPER AND WAVE

over-policing and under-policing as reflecting how the police devote too many resources on the one hand and insufficient on the other to policing

• Nightingale

• Hall

• Young

• Gilroy