Anatomy & Physiology 1a: Midterm

By Nathaniel Pecoraro

​Anatomy & Physiology 1a: Introduction, First Semester
Midterm Exam Review
Human Body Organization, Chemistry of the Body, Skeletal & Muscular System

Anatomy is the study of the structure or form of the body and its parts. The word anatomy comes from the Greek language, and, when translated, it means to cut up. There are multiple levels of anatomy, and this course will introduce you to many of them.

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Human Body Organization

Studies visible body structures like the heart and lungs. Historically explored through battlefield injuries and later cadaver dissection, it’s now also taught using computerized systems in many schools.

Gross

Studies cells and tissues too small to see without a microscope. It includes cytology (cells) and histology (tissues), revealing how tiny structures influence overall body function.

Microscopic

Study of human growth and development and how the structure and functions of the body change across the lifespan.

Developmental

Systematic anatomy—studying body systems individually. Regional anatomy examines how systems like the heart and lungs work together in specific areas.

Systematic & Regional

Levels of Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of body parts and structure, while physiology focuses on how those parts function. Physiology explores how the body maintains homeostasis, or internal balance, even during changing or unstable conditions.

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Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are studied together because structure and function are deeply connected. Each body part’s shape and size supports its specific role. Understanding both helps explain how systems, like the 62 leg bones, work together to support movement and balance..

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Together

Match

There are lots of this to that questions on the test, there are none of those here.

• Memorizing Bones

• How we digest food

• Gross Anatomy

• Regional Anatomy

• Microscopic

Anatomy

Physiology

Stomach

Adrenaline from glands affects the heart

Cells and Molecules

• Anatomy

• Physiology

• Stomach

• Adrenaline from glands affects the heart

• Cells and Molecules

The human body is structured in a way that supports optimal function, showcasing its remarkable design. Understanding how each part develops from its chemical foundation is essential to comprehending both anatomy and physiology.

Simple to Complex

Includes atoms, molecules, and macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—that form cells. These chemical interactions drive body functions. Imbalances at this level, such as dehydration or low oxygen, can cause issues like muscle cramps, highlighting the importance of cellular chemistry in health.

Chemical

Cells are the smallest structural units of the body, with over 100 trillion in an adult. Each type is specialized—muscle cells contract, fat cells store energy, and white blood cells fight infection. All cells share a membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Studying cell function is essential for developing treatments, such as targeting cancer cells.

Cellular

Organs who interrelate together
Epithelial tissue lines the surfaces of the body. Its role is to protect the body and its organs, secrete hormones, and absorb nutrients.

Connective tissue holds things together in the body and provides structure and support. Most common.

Muscle tissue provides the means for movement of the body. This form of tissue creates movement through contraction

Nervous tissue it is made up of neurons and glia which are specialized cells that carry electrical messages.

Organ Systems

Anatomically distinct body parts made of two or more tissue types, each arranged in a unique pattern. Like a quilt formed from different fabrics, each organ is designed to perform specific physiological functions. Due to this complexity, medical professionals often specialize in specific organs or systems.

Organism

Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.
Epithelial tissue lines the surfaces of the body. Its role is to protect the body and its organs, secrete hormones, and absorb nutrients.

Connective tissue holds things together in the body and provides structure and support. Most common.

Muscle tissue provides the means for movement of the body. This form of tissue creates movement through contraction

Nervous tissue it is made up of neurons and glia which are specialized cells that carry electrical messages.

Tissue

Anatomically distinct body parts made of two or more tissue types, each arranged in a unique pattern. Like a quilt formed from different fabrics, each organ is designed to perform specific physiological functions. Due to this complexity, medical professionals often specialize in specific organs or systems.

Organs

Each organ system contributes to maintaining homeostasis in the body.
There are 11 main organ systems in the human body.

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Organ Systems

​Skeletal - Bones & Support
Muscular - Muscles & Movement
Nervous - Brain and Communication
Integumentary - Skin
Cardiovascular - Blood
Respiratory - Breathing
Digestive - Eating & Nutrition
Urinary - Potty
Reproduction - Sexual Organs

The organism level is the complete living human, made up of all 11 organ systems working together. Understanding this level allows healthcare professionals to analyze and communicate specific body issues using precise medical terminology—like using GPS to locate and describe an exact problem area within the body.

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Organisms

Multiple Choice

Which are true about cells in the human body.

• Same basic structure and components

• Cytoplasm is like the broth in a soup and organelles are noodles

• The nucleus is like the cockpit

• Cancer cells are different because they reproduce out of control

• All answers are correct.

Reorder

Put the following in order from smallest to largest, going left to right.

• Carbon Atom

• Blood cell

• heart tissue

• Heart

• cardiovascular system

1

2

3

4

5

• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5

Match

Match with their similar

• Exterior Paint

• Your heart is made up of

• Colds impact this system

• Hyperthyroidism

• Drives the car

Epithelial Tissue (integumentary system)

Muscle Tissue

Respiratory System

Endocrine System

Nervous System

• Epithelial Tissue (integumentary system)

• Muscle Tissue

• Respiratory System

• Endocrine System

• Nervous System

Directional terms are used by healthcare practitioners to describe the relationship between body areas or the location of an anatomical structure. It is important that you are also able to use the terms, not simply restate them.

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Directions & Locations

The anatomical position is the standard body stance for reference: standing upright, eyes forward, arms at sides, palms and toes facing forward. All directional terms assume the body is in this position—like the mountain pose in yoga, or a confident “ta-da” stance.

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​Anatomical Position

• Superior / Inferior – toward the head or toward the feet

• Anterior (ventral) / Posterior (dorsal) – front or back

• Medial / Lateral – toward or away from the midline

• Proximal / Distal – closer to or farther from the point of attachment (typically limbs)

• Superficial / Deep – near the body surface or more internal

Terms

The body is divided into three planes—sagittal, transverse, and frontal—to view internal structures and assess movement. Healthcare professionals use these planes to measure range of motion and track recovery progress.

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3 Main Plains of the body.

Match

Locations

• The heart is _____ to the stomach

• Lungs are ______ to your spinal column.

• Your ear is ____ to your brain

• In a classic anatomical position, your fingers are lateral and _____ to your heart

Superior

Anterior

Lateral

Inferior

• Superior

• Anterior

• Lateral

• Inferior

Match

Locations II

• If a tree was a person, the leaves would be ____ to the branches.

• The shoulder of your arm is the most_____.

• The inside of the knee is _____.

• The spine is ______ to the lungs.

Distal

Proximal

Medial

Posterior

• Distal

• Proximal

• Medial

• Posterior

Labelling

Label the different planes of the body

Drag labels to their correct position on the image

Sagittal

Frontal

Transverse

In addition to the anatomical positions and the three planes, the body can also be divided into cavities, quadrants, and regions. These divisions can help you describe a location even more precisely.

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Cavities, Quadrants & Regions

The body has large spaces called cavities that hold and protect organs. The dorsal cavity runs along the back and includes the brain (cranial cavity) and spinal cord (spinal cavity). The ventral cavity, in the front, is flexible and includes the thoracic cavity (lungs, heart, etc.) and the abdominopelvic cavity, which contains the stomach, liver, intestines, bladder, and reproductive organs. These spaces allow the organs to move and function properly.​

Cavities

To help locate pain, swelling, or injury, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into four quadrants. Two imaginary lines cross at the belly button, forming the right upper, right lower, left upper, and left lower quadrants. This system helps doctors and patients describe problems more accurately.

Quadrants

When it comes to taking action and treating the injury or pain, healthcare practitioners may need to get even more specific and isolate a smaller region than what the quadrant method can do. The second method of subdividing the abdominopelvic cavity is using a grid method. It uses three imaginary lines on the sagittal plane and two on the transverse plane. This generates nine regions.

Regions

Match

Questions

• Skull is in what cavity

• Iliac region is _____ to the lumbar region

• Homeostasis is mostly about

• The Abdominopelvic cavity is divided how?

• Hypochondriac refers to

Dorsal

Inferior

Maintaining a steady state

2 Quadrants and 9 Regions

the upper abdomen

• Dorsal

• Inferior

• Maintaining a steady state

• 2 Quadrants and 9 Regions

• the upper abdomen

Match

Part II

• Major orienting region for the abdominal cavity

• Why do we use planes and regions

• Which cavity expands during pregnancy?

• The starting point

• This cavity is formed in early fetal development

umbilical region

help describe specific locations

The ventral cavity

Anatomical position

Dorsal Cavity

• umbilical region

• help describe specific locations

• The ventral cavity

• Anatomical position

• Dorsal Cavity

Your body is constantly working to build, support, and sustain life—even during sleep. Cells, the body’s basic structural units, make this possible. Understanding their structure and function is key to learning how all body systems work together in both health and disease.

Chemistry of the Body

Homeostasis means “always stays the same.” Coined by Walter Cannon, it describes how the body maintains a stable internal environment. Claude Bernard discovered that cells need the right temperature, chemicals, volume, and pressure to survive. Without balance, cells fail—leading to illness or even death if not corrected.

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Homeostasis

A stressor is anything that disrupts internal balance. In response, the body activates a homeostatic control system, made up of four parts: sensor, control center, effector, and feedback loop. These systems help maintain balance, like removing layers of clothing when the weather warms up.

Control Systems

The sensor mechanism detects environmental changes, like heat from a surface or warm air. Sensory nerves or hormone-producing glands send signals to prompt the body to respond appropriately.

​​Sensor Mechanism

The integration center (often in the brain) receives and processes signals from the sensor mechanism. It analyzes input from multiple sources and determines the necessary response, like deciding whether to remove a vest, hoodie, or both based on how warm the body feels.

​​Integration/Control Center

Effectors are organs or glands that respond to internal changes. For example, when you're too warm, sweat glands release sweat to cool the body, guided by feedback from the control system.

Effector Mechanism

The integration center (often in the brain) receives and processes signals from the sensor mechanism. It analyzes input from multiple sources and determines the necessary response, like deciding whether to remove a vest, hoodie, or both based on how warm the body feels.

​​Feeback

​The hypothalamus regulates body temperature by dilating capillaries and prompting sweat (to cool down) or constricting capillaries and creating goose bumps (to warm up) through a feedback loop.

Negative feedback loops maintain balance by reversing changes. For example, when blood sugar rises, the pancreas releases insulin to lower it. If insulin is insufficient, as in diabetes, other systems like the kidneys compensate, but long-term strain can lead to organ failure. Negative feedback opposes change to restore homeostasis.

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Types of Feed Back

Positive feedback loops amplify changes rather than reverse them. They push the body further from homeostasis to achieve a specific outcome quickly. Examples include increasing contractions during childbirth and accelerating blood clotting—both aim to complete the process rapidly by reinforcing the original stimulus.

Match

Part I

• Homeo

• Example of good Homeostasis

• Touch something that stings and feel pain

• Reflex or pulling away

• when your brain registers that pain caused your reflex

Similar too

98.6 Body Temperature

Sensor Mechanism

Effector mechanism

Integration / Control Center

• Similar too

• 98.6 Body Temperature

• Sensor Mechanism

• Effector mechanism

• Integration / Control Center

Match

Part II

• Positive Feed Back

• Negative Feed Back

• This is an example of what feedback: sweating on a hot day to cool down

• This is an example of what feedback: Stimulation of milk glands for women nursing.

• Control Center for Temperature

Stimulatory

Inhibitory

Negative Feedback Loop

Positive Feedback Loop

Hypothalamus

• Stimulatory

• Inhibitory

• Negative Feedback Loop

• Positive Feedback Loop

• Hypothalamus

In 1665, Robert Hooke first saw and named “cells” because they looked like monk rooms. In the 1830s, Schleiden and Schwann discovered all living things are made of cells—humans have over 100 trillion.

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Cell Structures

• All living things are composed of one or more cells.

• Cell is the basic unit of life

• New cells arise from pre-existing cells

​(84)

​Modern Cell Theory

Like limbs with different functions, cells vary in role and structure. Cardiac muscle cells pump the heart; nerve cells transmit messages through long projections. Despite differences, all cells share core features. The “typical cell” is an educational model combining common structures found across various specialized cells.

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Anatomy of a Cell

The cell’s outer layer is the cell membrane. The cytoplasm contains organelles and molecules suspended in a fluid called cytosol, or intracellular fluid.

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​Cell Membrane

Anatomy of a Cell

The rough endoplasmic reticulum produces and transports proteins. Attached to the nuclear envelope, it appears rough due to ribosomes on its surface.

Rough ER

​make proteins, with many attached to the RER and others free-floating within the cell.

​​Ribosomes

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum detoxifies the cell and produces lipids, functioning like a finishing station that prepares and packages products after initial assembly.

​​Smooth ER

Lysosomes are enzyme-filled sacs that act as the cell’s digestive system. They break down invaders and defective parts, recycling or eliminating waste—like a factory’s security, quality control, and recycling departments.

Lysomes

Peroxisomes are enzyme-filled sacs that break down lipids. Like lysosomes, they act as the cell’s security, quality control, and waste removal system—focused specifically on lipid destruction.

Peroxisome

The nucleus is the cell’s control center, like a master password protecting everything. It stores genetic material, directs growth, reproduction, and protein production, and regulates activity through pores and a protective double membrane.

​​Nucleus

The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs that modifies, packages, and exports proteins from the cell. Think of it as the shipping department in a factory assembly line.

Golgi Apparatus

Tiny organelles that generate energy by producing ATP, which powers nearly all cell functions. Their folded inner membranes are packed with enzymes. In the shirt factory analogy, they serve as the main power supply—without them, production stops.

Mitochondria

Small membrane-bound sacs that transport and temporarily store molecules within the cell. Ensure proper timing of delivery. In the factory analogy, vesicles act like storage —holding shirts until the button machine is ready.

​​Vesicles

Match

Celles

• Animal cell component similar to a cell wall.

• Part of the cell the organelles and molecules float in

• Cell's power house

• Store Molecules

• Are fill with enzymes

Membranes

Cytoplasm

Mitochondria

Vesicles

lysosomes & Peroxisomes

• Membranes

• Cytoplasm

• Mitochondria

• Vesicles

• lysosomes & Peroxisomes

Labelling

labels the areas.

Drag labels to their correct position on the image

Contains Genetic Material

Rough ER

Modify and export protiens

Makes Proteins

Cells are the foundation of all living systems, which is why they’re central to anatomy and physiology. Every major function—muscle contraction, nerve signals, cardiac rhythm—depends on cellular processes.

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What do Cells really do?

Cells perform countless specialized functions, but this course focused on major categories of cell activity to build understanding of body systems and their physiological processes.
1. Build Themselves
2. Build Tissues
3. Promote Communication between body parts
4. Produce and transform energy
5. Transport and make products

Cell Functions

Epithelial tissue, like skin, lines organs and glands, forming protective layers that also transport and regulate substances.

Epithelial

Supports, binds, and protects body structures, storing energy, preserving heat, and cushioning organs with randomly arranged cells.

​​Connective

Is made of long, fiber-like cells with a rich blood supply. It produces movement, generates heat, and includes the heart, which pumps blood throughout the body.

​​Muscle

Is made of neurons for body communication, supported by neuroglia that insulate, protect, and maintain nerves in the brain, spinal cord, and sensory organs.

​​Nervous

Tissues: grouping of same typed cells

Cells act like energy plants, powering body processes through chemical reactions called metabolic pathways. Catabolic pathways break down large molecules to release energy, such as digesting food. Cellular respiration is a key example, fueling life by converting nutrients into usable energy for growth, repair, and activity.

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Energy Production

Cellular respiration, or aerobic respiration, has three stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP. The citric acid cycle releases carbon dioxide, ATP, NADH, and FADH2. Oxidative phosphorylation converts these into abundant ATP. Catabolic pathways release energy, while anabolic pathways build molecules like proteins for growth.

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​Cellular Respiration

Types of Product Transportation

Diffusion moves substances from high to low concentration until balanced, like sugar dissolving evenly in coffee. Osmosis specifically involves water moving across membranes. Both processes require no energy, helping cells regulate balance and transport essential molecules for survival.

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Passive Transport Processes

​Osmosis is water movement through a semi-permeable membrane, driven by concentration differences. Water flows from high to low concentration until balance is reached, maintaining fluid volume in cells and stopping once equilibrium is achieved.

Moves larger molecules across the cell membrane using pumps and vesicles. Unlike passive transport, it requires energy to work against gradients, enabling nutrient balance, waste removal, pathogen capture, and protein export for body functions.

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Active Transport

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering energy requirements. Each has a unique active site, binding only specific substrates like a lock and key. They aid digestion, energy, muscle building, nerve function, and toxin removal, making essential body processes faster and more efficient.

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Enzymes

Enzymes only function properly at normal body temperature (98.6°F/37°C) and pH 7.4. Extreme heat or pH changes alter their shape, making them ineffective. This loss disrupts homeostasis, impairing critical processes and potentially causing severe illness or even death. Maintaining stable internal conditions is vital for enzyme activity.

​

Enzymes & Homeostasis

Match

Part I

• Skin

• Join Pain

• Responsible for Temperature control through "shivering"

• Neuroglia

• Connective Tissue

epithelial tissue

Connective Tissue Decay

Muscle Tissue

Nervous

Fatty Tissue

• epithelial tissue

• Connective Tissue Decay

• Muscle Tissue

• Nervous

• Fatty Tissue

Match

Part II

• A fire breaking down carbon to create heat

• building a house out of bricks

• Energy Production / Mitochondria

• Passive Transport: movement that requires a semi-permeable membrane

• Passive Transport: Movement from high density to low density to create equilibrium

catabolic metabolism

anabolic metabolism

cellular respiration

Osmosis

diffusion

• catabolic metabolism

• anabolic metabolism

• cellular respiration

• Osmosis

• diffusion

Match

Part III

• Difference between active and passive transport.

• What is necessary for proteins and other substances to leave a cell.

• Decay and aging is a result of a slow down in

• What is ATP

energy

active transport

Cellular respiration

Adenosine Triphosphate

• energy

• active transport

• Cellular respiration

• Adenosine Triphosphate

Cells are constantly replaced through cell division, which supports growth, repair, and healing. The cell cycle mirrors life—cells are born, grow, function, and die. As aging slows cell production, functions decline, leading to changes like wrinkled skin from reduced elasticity. Continuous replacement is essential for survival.

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Cell Cycle

Most body cells replicate through mitosis, except gametes (eggs and sperm). Mitosis has two main phases: interphase and mitotic phase. Replication speed varies—skin and blood cells divide quickly, while nerve cells regenerate slowly. Fingernails, for example, grow much slower than surrounding skin, showing differences in cell reproduction rates.​

Interphase is the time between cell division, this is the longest period of the cell cycle.

Replication: Mitosis

When interphase ends, the nuclear envelope dissolves and chromosomes form, marking the start of the mitotic phase.

Prophase

During metaphase, chromosomes align at the cell’s equator, each chromatid attaching to spindle fibers, clearly visible under a microscope.

​​Metaphase

The next stage of mitosis is called anaphase. This is when the chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.

Anaphase

During telophase, nuclear membranes reform, spindle fibers disappear, and the cytoplasm divides, creating two completely new daughter cells.

​​Metaphase

Mitosis is a constant process, regulated by chemical signals to ensure accurate division and repair. Normally, cells fix mistakes, but mutations—caused by UV radiation, smoking, alcohol, or toxins—can disrupt control. Damaged cells may ignore signals, divide uncontrollably, and form tumors that steal nutrients, damage tissues, and potentially spread (metastasis). This unchecked growth defines cancer.

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Cancer

Genetic mutations can result from environmental exposures such as cigarette smoke, alcohol, or UV radiation, which damage cellular DNA.

Mutation

Mutated DNA disrupts the cell cycle, causing cells to ignore signals, malfunction, and divide uncontrollably without dying as they should.

​​Cycle Disruption

Cancer cells form tumors that steal nutrients, damage tissue, invade nearby cells, and may spread to other organs through metastasis, worsening symptoms and complicating treatment.

​​Progression

Meiosis is the process that creates gametes (eggs in females, sperm in males). It is the only way the body makes haploid cells, which have just one set of chromosomes.

It works similarly to mitosis but has two divisions instead of one: Meiosis I and Meiosis II, with a short resting phase in between. These stages reduce the chromosome number and create cells that are genetically unique—an essential step for sexual reproduction.

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​Meiosis

​At the end of Mitosis the result is a new diploid or a cell containing 2 full sets of chromosomes.
At the end of Meiosis the result is 4 haploid cells each containing 1 set of chromosomes or half of the needed.
These haploid cells combine with the opposite sex to create a zygote.

Match

Part I

• When this slows, cells begin to deteriorate

• Most cells in the body replicate using

• Gametes reproduce through

• Meiosis occurs in what body system

• Mitosis involves diploids and meiosis involves ______

Cellular Respiration

Mitosis

Meiosis

Reproductive

Haploids

• Cellular Respiration

• Mitosis

• Meiosis

• Reproductive

• Haploids

Match

Part II

• Cells duplicate their DNA and other organelles

• Last stage resulting in 2 new cells

• This phase researchers can visually study DNA

• Cells begin to organize internal components

• Genetic material actively moves to opposite ends of the cells

interphase

Telophase

Metaphase

Prophase

Anaphase

• interphase

• Telophase

• Metaphase

• Prophase

• Anaphase

Match

Part III

• Why does sexual reproduction mix the DNA of two

• Cellular Respiration centers around

• There are over 200

• Came up with Homeostasis

• Discovered that cell surrounding fluids had to be balanced just right

Combining of haploids

Production of ATP

Cells in the Human Body

Walter B. Cannon

Claude Bernard

• Combining of haploids

• Production of ATP

• Cells in the Human Body

• Walter B. Cannon

• Claude Bernard

The adult human skeleton contains 206 bones. At birth, the body has over 250 bones, but many fuse during growth to form stronger, longer structures. The skeleton determines body shape and size, supports upright posture, and enables movement for daily activities such as walking, typing, and dancing.

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The Skeletal System

Bones provide more than structure. Beyond enabling movement, the skeleton stores minerals, produces blood cells, and supports overall health. Understanding bone types and formation helps explain both the skeletal system and its connections to other organ systems.

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Introduction

Introduction

The skeletal system makes up 30–40% of body weight and supports multiple organ systems with five key functions beyond structure and movement.

Organ Production

The skeletal system protects internal organs by acting as armor. Without bones, blows or falls would directly injure organs, much like knights’ armor or football pads shield the body.

Bone marrow inside long bones produces and repairs blood cells, including red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body to sustain essential functions.

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Blood Cell Production

Movement

Simple movements like raising arms or bending knees involve muscles contracting and bones moving together, with specific bones and joints enabling coordinated motion and support.

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Storage of Nutrients & Minerals

Bones act as nutrient reservoirs, storing calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamin K—essential for clotting, muscle and nerve function, heart activity, energy production, and blood sugar regulation. This mineral storage supports vital physiological processes throughout the body.

​

Upright Posture and Support

Without bones, humans would collapse like jellyfish. The skeleton forms the body’s framework, providing structure, stability, and support—much like a house foundation.

​

Bone, or osseous tissue, is made of fibers, cells, and a hardened extracellular matrix. This matrix, composed of calcium, phosphate, proteins, and sugars, makes bone both strong and slightly spongy. It allows resistance but can break under excessive force.

​

Bone as a Tissue

Ossification and Calcification

Bone formation starts with a cartilage model (like a sketch) later hardened by calcium through calcification. Ossification differs—this lifelong process builds bones from birth through adulthood. Intramembranous ossification increases bone width, while endochondral ossification lengthens long bones, stimulated by growth hormones.

Remodeling

Though bone growth stops around age 18, bones continually remodel. Remodeling replaces worn-out tissue to maintain strength, supporting everyday stresses like running, jumping, or walking. This ensures bones remain durable and functional throughout life.

​

There are four major types of bone cells, and they are critical to maintaining the integrity, or strength, of the bone. They work to repair the bone when it’s weakened.

​Bone remodeling requires removing old tissue before replacing it. Osteoclasts break down worn bone by releasing acid, which frees calcium for blood clotting and muscle contraction. Then, osteoblasts rebuild bone, recycling calcium into a new, strong matrix. This process resembles replacing worn-out soles on shoes with new ones.

​Types of Bone Cells

These are the only bone cells that divide, and they divide into osteoblasts.

Osteogenic Cells

These are the cells that generate new bone by creating osteocytes and other proteins that build the strong bone matrix.

​​Osteoblasts

​These are the mature bone cells that lie within the fully formed bone and are located in the lacuna, a small chamber in the calcified matrix of the bone.

Osteocytes

​These cells are responsible for the maintenance and repair of bone.

​​Osteoclasts

Match

Part I

• The ability to produce and repair blood cells improves with bone ______

• An osseous knife would be made of what?

• Going over a pencil line with a pen is a analogy for

• Ice Cubes

• Embryo skeletal system starts as

Size

bone

Calcification

similar to bone matrix

hyaline cartilage

• Size

• bone

• Calcification

• similar to bone matrix

• hyaline cartilage

Match

Part II

• Development of bone as an embryo

• Development of bone across your entire life

• As you age, your hip bones go through

• As you age, your upper leg bones go through:

• Most bone development after the age of 18 is considered:

calcification

ossification

intramembranous ossification

endochondral ossification.

remodeling

• calcification

• ossification

• intramembranous ossification

• endochondral ossification.

• remodeling

Match

Part III

• This bone cell patches and repairs

• The basic framing of a house which the walls are built into is like

• Expanding or adding on to

• a contractor who hired two sub-contractors to help work on the house would be most like which type of bone cell?

osteoclast

osteocyte

osteoblast

osteogenic

• 
  

  osteoclast

• osteocyte

• 
  osteoblast

• osteogenic

Compact bone forms 80 percent of skeletal weight, containing tightly packed osteons. These structures enable nutrient delivery and waste removal during bone remodeling, while providing strength and smooth outer surfaces.
Cancellous bone, or trabecular bone, makes up 20 percent. Its trabeculae crisscross internally, providing structural support, particularly within long bone epiphyses and other skeletal regions.
Bone marrow exists as red or yellow tissue. Red marrow produces blood cells; yellow marrow stores fat. Distribution changes with age, especially after epiphyseal plate fusion.

Types of Bone Tissue

Long bones are found in the arms and the legs. They are longer than they are wide and usually have a straight section called a diaphysis with a rounded area on either end called an epiphysis. The area between the diaphysis and the epiphyses at either end of the bone is called the metaphysis. These bones are built for withstanding a great deal of weight and providing support to the structure.

Long Bones

​Are cube-shaped, mostly spongy, and found in wrists (carpals) and ankles (tarsals). They allow greater movement than larger bones.

Short Bones

Flat bones are thin, curved, and layered like a sandwich, with spongy bone inside. Found in skull, ribs, sternum, and scapula, they protect soft tissues.

​​Flat Bones

Sesamoid bones, like the kneecap, form within tendons over angled surfaces. Found in hands and feet, they resemble sesame seeds and aid movement.

​​Sesamoid Bones

Irregular bones, such as the mandible, coccyx, and vertebrae, have varied shapes with edges for muscle, tendon, and ligament attachments. They don’t fit other categories.

​​Irregular Bones

Fractures occur when bones experience more force than they can withstand. Healing requires realignment and immobilization—often with a cast, sling, or bed rest—before the remodeling process restores bone structure through a specific, ordered sequence of events..

​

When Bones Break

Effects of Aging

​Osteoporosis is a condition where bones lose density and strength as aging reduces osteoblast activity while osteoclasts continue breaking down bone. This imbalance weakens the bone matrix, making bones brittle. Postmenopausal women are most at risk due to declining estrogen levels. A major complication is fractures, which may occur even from minor bumps or falls.

Match

Part I

• 
  

  Long cylinders, packed tightly together, running lengthwise along the bone.

• A Sponge

• Type of bone would not have an epiphysis

• Stack of Soda Cans in the grocery store

• woven wicker basket

Compact Bone

cancellous bone

sphenoid (base of your skull)

osteons

trabeculae

• Compact Bone

• cancellous bone

• sphenoid (base of your skull)

• osteons

• 
  

  trabeculae

Match

Part II

• Produces Red Blood Cells

• These bones would be the supports when building a house

• Bone Completely covered in tendons

• Thin curved bone with 2 layers of compact tissue around a layer of cancellous tissue

• spongier, more cushioning

Bones

Long Bones

sesamoid bone

flat bone

Cartilage

• Bones

• Long Bones

• sesamoid bone

• flat bone

• Cartilage

Match

When did they die?

• Frozen body with a broken leg. There’s highly visible bruising around the fracture site

• Frozen body with a broken leg. The fracture is narrow, and a hard callus seems to have formed

• frozen body with a broken leg. The fracture is wide, and a soft callus seems to have formed

With in a few days

At least 3 weeks

About 2 weeks

• With in a few days

• At least 3 weeks

• About 2 weeks

Learning every bone name can be overwhelming, so this course focuses on key terms instead. Most bone names come from Latin and describe whether a marking is a projection (sticks out) or a depression (pushes in). Understanding this terminology provides a foundation for anatomy and future health studies.

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Names & Locations

Condyle: Rounded bone bump forming joints with a fossa.
Crest: Raised ridge on bone where muscles attach.
Facet: Flat surface on a bone that forms joints.
Head: Rounded end of a long bone, separated from its shaft by a neck.
Line: Slight ridge on a bone, smaller than a crest.
Process: Significantly raised area on a bone.
Ramus: Curved bone projection, branching like a ram’s horn.
Spine: Sharp, pointed bone projection higher than a crest, a muscle attachment site.
Trochanter: Large bone bump for muscle attachment (Femur)
Tuberosity: Oblong, raised bump on a bone, shaped like a test tube

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Projections: Raised areas where tendons and ligaments attach and protect the bone surface

Fissure: Elongated crack-like opening in bone structure
Foramen: Round opening in bone, like a to-go cup lid
Fossa: Smooth depression in bone where another bone fits, like a pipe in a ditch
Meatus: Elongated opening in bone, like the ear canal
Notch: V-shaped depression in bone, like a bite taken out
Sinus: Hollow cavity within a bone
Sulcus: Long groove-like depression in a bone, deeper than a fossa

​

Depressions: Openings or grooves allowing nerves and blood vessels to pass

Angle: Bone angle: inside or outside corner formed at a bone’s boundary.
Body: Bone body: the main or central shaft portion of the bone.
Border: Bone border: a straight edge or boundary of a bone, not angled.

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Other Bone Markings

The axial skeleton has 80 bones, including the skull, spinal column, ribs, and sternum. The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones: shoulders, arms, wrists, hands, pelvis, legs, ankles, and feet.

​

Axial Skeleton

• Primary function: protecting internal organs

• Memory trick: to remember axial, you can think of the axis that runs through the center of the Earth, as these are the central bones of the body

• Rule of ones: the axial skeleton contains single bones

• Bones: cranium, spine, ribcage, sternum

• Bone type: primarily flat and irregular bones (e.g., skull bones, vertebrae).

• Number: 80 bones in total

The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones attached to the axial skeleton. It includes 64 bones in the upper extremities (arms, shoulder girdle) and 62 in the lower extremities (hips, legs).

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Appendicular Skeleton

• Primary function: movement

• Rule of twos: the appendicular skeleton contains paired bones

• Bones: hands, arms, feet, legs, shoulder girdle (scapula, clavicle—left and right of each), pelvic bones (ilium, ischium, pubis—left and right of each)

• Bone Type: primarily long and short bones (e.g., femur, humerus, carpals).

• Number: 126 bones in total

Match

bone location

• A leg bone’s diaphysis would be found at its

• fracture in the proximal epiphysis of their leg bone, the femur. Where is this fracture?

• pain in their sternum. Where would you look for damage?

• Which bone is part of the axial skeleton?

• Which bone is part of the appendicular skeleton?

body

in the upper end of the bone

chest

hyoid

Humerus

• 
  

  body

• 
  in the upper end of the bone

• chest

• hyoid

• Humerus

Joints, or articulations, are connections between bones that allow movement or provide stability. Some joints move freely, others move slightly, and some remain immobile to ensure structural support and strength for the body’s framework.

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​Joints

Synarthroses (fibrous joints) are immovable connections where bones are joined by thin connective tissue, like the sutures in the skull.

​

Joints that Don't Move

Amphiarthroses, or cartilaginous joints, allow slight movement between bones held by cartilage. Examples include spinal vertebrae joints, which permit bending and twisting while protecting the spinal cord from damage.

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​Joints That Move a Little

Diarthroses, or synovial joints, are freely movable joints—the body’s most common and complex. They have seven key features that explain joint movement and related diseases.

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Joints that Move Freely

Joint Capsule: Area where 2 joints meet
Synovial Membrane: Secretes fluid to lubricate joints
Articular Cartilage: Cartilage over the ends of bones in joints
Joint Cavity: Space between Joints
Menisci: Extra protection between joints
Ligaments: Fibrous Tissue that creates security and stability in the joint.
Bursae: like small fluid filled pillows on bony or pointy areas.

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Knee Diarthrorsis

There are six types of freely movable (synovial) joints. Hinge joints (elbows) allow flexion and extension. Pivot joints (upper spine) allow rotation. Saddle joints (thumbs) move in many directions but not rotation. Ball-and-socket joints (shoulder, hip) allow circular movement and rotation. Condyloid joints (knuckles) move in all planes but don’t rotate. Gliding joints (wrists, ankles) permit sliding or twisting in two planes.

Types of Diarthroses

Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis results from normal wear and tear on joints, leading to inflammation, cartilage loss, and reduced flexibility. As the protective surfaces erode, bones rub together, increasing pain and further inflammation, which limits mobility. Treatments include rest, anti-inflammatory medications, and, in severe cases, joint replacement surgery.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
RA is an autoimmune condition where synovial fluid produces enzymes that damage bone and cartilage. Management includes avoiding inflammatory food triggers, medication, and, in severe cases, joint replacement surgery.

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Aging on Joints

Match

Joints

• Which represents a type of synarthroses

• Your tibia to your fibular is what type of joint?

• Leg bone connected to your hip is an example of type of joint?

• The bones in your skull represent what kind of join?

• Bursitis can be inferred to be a disease that might effect?

Teeth

Amphiarthroses

Diarthroses

Synarthroses and Sutures

Knees, elbows, shoulders

• Teeth

• Amphiarthroses

• Diarthroses

• Synarthroses and Sutures

• Knees, elbows, shoulders

Match

General Bone

• Spongier and more cushioned than bone

• A torn meniscus usually represent in what Hinge joint?

• Where in the bone would based on location would redblood cells be made?

• Where in the bone based on location would adipose be stored?

• What part of the bone is dense with osteons

Cartilage

Knee

Interior Head

Interior Body

The outer layer or hard part of the bone

• Cartilage

• Knee

• Interior Head

• Interior Body

• The outer layer or hard part of the bone

Labelling

Label the following areas of the bone

Drag labels to their correct position on the image

trochanter, Trochanter, Condyle

metaphysis

Red blood cell creation

diaphysis

Dense Osteons

Adipose stored

The Muscular System
Unit 4

Without the skeletal system, humans would be shapeless tissue. Bones give structure, but movement requires muscles working with the nervous system to coordinate contractions. Muscles counteract gravity, keeping the body upright and balanced through subtle and large adjustments directed by nerve impulses. Muscle spindles, wrapped in nerve fibers, communicate with the brain to control contractions and relaxation for stability. Beyond movement, muscles protect internal organs by attaching to bones and skin, forming a cushion-like barrier with connective tissues—providing the body with its own “internal bubble wrap” for both function and protection.

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​What Do Muscles Do?

Acting as a Thermostat
Muscles generate heat during contraction, causing shivering when cold. When warm, muscles relax, triggering perspiration through the thermoregulatory center.

Keeping Your Blood Pumping
Cardiac muscle pumps blood 60–100 times per minute, delivering oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. It must also relax between contractions to refill with blood, ensuring effective circulation.

Digesting Nutrients and Removing Waste
Muscles—from the tongue to the digestive tract—break down food and move it along using wavelike motions, pushing waste to the rectum for removal.

​

Continued

Muscle Tissue Basics
Muscles are composed of specialized muscle tissue made up of distinct muscle cells. Understanding these cell types helps explain each muscle’s structure and function.

Muscle Contractions
There are two types of contractions. Involuntary contractions—like heartbeats or stomach churning—occur without conscious control, managed by cardiac and smooth muscles. Voluntary contractions occur when you intentionally move muscles, such as bending your arm to touch your nose.

Muscle Types
There are three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth, each with unique functions in the body.

​

Types

Match

What do muscles do?

• Major intersection between muscular system and the nervous system

• Function shared with the skeletal and muscular system

• When you are cold your muscles

• When you are hot your muscles

• Contractions during birth are an example of

Muscle Spindle

Protecting Vital Organs

Contract

relax

Involuntary muscle contractions

• Muscle Spindle

• Protecting Vital Organs

• Contract

• relax

• Involuntary muscle contractions

Match

Muscle Cells

• Cells with multiple Nuclei are found where?

• Cells that are smooth and thick in the middle are found

• Where do you find visceral organs?

skeletal muscular tissue

in the intestinal track

Deep inside

• skeletal muscular tissue

• in the intestinal track

• Deep inside

Muscle ultrastructure refers to the tiny parts of muscle cells seen only with special microscopes. These elongated muscle fibers contain multiple nuclei and proteins. Inside, smaller units called myofibrils bundle together, much like wires inside a cable, enabling the complex interactions that power every movement your muscles make.

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Muscles Contract

Myofibrils act like wires inside a cable, with sarcomeres as the smallest contractile units. Sarcomeres contain thick myosin and thin actin filaments. When these filaments slide toward each other, sarcomeres shorten, contracting the muscle—similar to collapsing a telescope. Contraction strength depends on how many fibers shorten simultaneously.

​

Continued

Skeletal muscle contraction requires coordination between the nervous and muscular systems. Motor neurons connect to muscle fibers at neuromuscular (myoneural) junctions. The brain sends signals releasing neurotransmitters, opening sodium channels. Sodium influx excites cells, releasing calcium, which enables actin to bind myosin, causing the muscle to contract.

Interaction of the Nervous and Muscular System

Match

Part 1

• What electrolyte is released to activate a muscle fiber

• What type of muscle fiber has interlocking fibers and allows transmissions

• Which type of muscle can hold contractions the longest

• Which cells link muscular systems to nervous system

• Which is a chemical

Calcium Ions

Cardiac

Smooth

motor neurons

neurotransmitter

• Calcium Ions

• Cardiac

• Smooth

• motor neurons

• neurotransmitter

Reorder

Reorder the following from more basic to complex

• Myofilaments

• Sarcomere

• Myofibril

1

2

3

• 1
• 2
• 3

Roughly 40% of your body is muscle tissue, with 650 named muscles. Like bones, muscles are grouped into axial and appendicular categories. Muscle names, often Latin, reflect characteristics like size, location, shape, and fiber direction, making terms universally recognizable and easier to understand across languages and scientific disciplines.

Naming Muscles

Muscle size helps differentiate multiple muscles in one area. For example, gluteus maximus is largest, gluteus medius mid-sized, and gluteus minimus smallest. Knowing roots and suffixes allows you to decode medical terms instead of memorizing long lists, making unfamiliar terminology easier to understand and remember.

Muscle Size

Muscle Location

Many muscles are named for where they’re found on the skeleton. For example, the gluteus muscles are in the buttocks, and the tibialis muscles are near the tibia bone in the lower leg. Knowing anatomical terms helps identify muscles by their location.

Muscle Shape

Other muscles are named for their shape. Examples include the triangular deltoid, trapezoid-like trapezius, notched serratus, wedge-shaped piriformis, four-sided quadratus, and worm-like lumbrical. Understanding these naming patterns makes it easier to recognize and remember different muscles.

Muscles Cont.

Muscles can also be named for the direction of their fibers. “Oblique” muscles run diagonally to the midline, while “rectus” muscles run straight or parallel. “Transverse” muscles run across, such as in the abdomen. “Circular” muscles go around openings, and “spiral” muscles wind like screw threads. Knowing these patterns helps identify muscles based on their fiber orientation and direction.

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Directions

Origin and Insertion
The origin of a muscle attaches to an immovable bone, while the insertion attaches to a movable bone. During contraction, the insertion moves toward the origin. Muscles named for their origin and insertion list the origin first and insertion second, like the sternocleidomastoid.

Number of Origins
Muscles may also be named for the number of origins. “Biceps” has two heads, “triceps” has three, and “quadriceps” has four.

​

Origins & Insertions

Match

Naming

• A major brevis muscle would be

• One of its muscles is very wide, though not particularly large

• Your vastus lateralis is a muscle in your leg, attached to your greater trochanter

• largest muscle in your body

• 
  Your trapezius muscle

large but short

latissimus

Covers a large area

gluteus maximus

trapezoid shaped.

• large but short

• latissimus

• Covers a large area

• gluteus maximus

• trapezoid shaped.

Match

continued

• tibialis anterior is connected to

• what would you expect of the lumbrical muscles in your hand?

•  

  Based on the name, you could guess your biceps

• Which kind of muscles would contract to allow you to stretch out your fingers

• Imagine you are bending your foot so that the toes are reaching up into the air while you stand on your heels. What would be the origin for the agonist performing this movement?

your shin

worm shaped

two origin points

extensions

lower leg/upper ankle

• your shin

• worm shaped

• two origin points

• extensions

• lower leg/upper ankle

Muscles attach to bones at two points: origin (immovable bone) and insertion (movable bone). These points determine how a body part moves.
For example, when you bend your elbow, your biceps brachii contracts. Its origin is on the humerus (upper arm) and insertion on the radius (forearm), pulling the lower arm toward the upper arm.

The muscle doing most of the work is the prime mover (agonist). Supporting muscles are synergists or antagonists. In elbow flexion, the biceps brachii is the agonist, while the triceps brachii lengthens eccentrically as the antagonist to allow smooth movement.

Contractions and Movements

Muscles contract differently depending on movement. Isotonic contractions keep the same tension while muscles change length. Concentric means muscles shorten (like biceps in elbow bending), and eccentric means muscles lengthen. Isotonic exercises build strength through motion—like lifting, jogging, or aerobics.

Isometric Contractions and Training Differences
Isometric contractions keep the muscle’s length the same while tension changes—like holding a position at a ballet bar, yoga, or planks. Strongman training emphasizes high-resistance power, while triathlete training develops endurance muscles, requiring very different muscle adaptations and training plans.

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Isotonic & Isometric

Starting an exercise routine can be confusing, but both isotonic and isometric exercises benefit health. Isotonic exercises (like push-ups, bicep curls, squats, and stair climbing) strengthen muscles, build range of motion, improve cardiovascular health, increase bone density, and need little or no equipment. Isometric exercises (like planks, bridges, and yoga poses) strengthen muscles in a stationary position, improve flexibility, aid rehabilitation, lower blood pressure, and show benefits in just 10–30 seconds. Combining both types of exercises can enhance muscle strength, range of motion, and overall well-being while keeping workouts enjoyable and accessible.

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Careers

Match

Part I

•  

  Eccentric contraction is to concentric contraction as

• What organ systems can require mechanical aid to function day to day for patients with certain kinds of muscular dystrophy

• How is muscular dystrophy contracted

• Juana has just been diagnosed with muscular dystrophy. What is, most likely, her age?

• Muscle strains most often are located:

stretching is to shrinking

respiratory and cardiovascular

through DNA

3 Weeks

where the muscle meets the tendon.

• stretching is to shrinking

• respiratory and cardiovascular

• 
  

  through DNA

• 3 Weeks

• where the muscle meets the tendon.

Match

Part II

• Your friend Khamil experienced a sharp, intense pain when he contracted his leg muscle running. Assuming this is indeed a muscle strain, it would be described as:

• As humans enter old age, they all:

• What is a common treatment for minor muscle strains?

• Your heart works by:

• Which medical apparatus can directly assist a poorly functioning muscle in your body?

active.

shrink in height.

rest, ice, and anti-inflammatories

entirely involuntary muscle contraction.

a pacemaker

• active.

• 
  

  shrink in height.

• rest, ice, and anti-inflammatories

• entirely involuntary muscle contraction.

• a pacemaker

Match

Part III

• Which muscle in your body is one of the strongest, able to exert more force than most other muscles?

• Another word for muscles that work to support the prime mover is:

• What is the purpose of the gap between motor neurons and myofibers?

• 
  Muscle contraction is described by:

• Piriformis muscles are:

jaw muscle

synergists.

Transmits synaptic signals

sliding filament theory

wedge shaped.

• 
  jaw muscle

• synergists.

• 
  Transmits synaptic signals

• sliding filament theory

• wedge shaped.

Possible Essay Questions

​Your In the world of anatomy, directional terminology serves as a universal language that allows healthcare professionals and scientists to precisely describe the position, orientation, and movement of various structures within the human body. As an aspiring anatomy student, your understanding and mastery of directional terminology are important to effectively communicate and navigate the intricacies of the human form. For this essay, demonstrate your comprehension of directional terminology by addressing the following situation using at least 10 directional terms. You can use your imagination, as long as the details all make sense and are consistent with their meaning and with the description provided.
Imagine you are a physical therapist working with a patient recovering from a car accident. The patient has a fractured upper femur and is experiencing limited mobility in their hip joint. Using precise anatomical terminology, describe the location and nature of the fracture and the specific range of motion restrictions the patient is facing.

Possible Essay Questions

In the world of anatomy, directional terminology serves as a universal language that allows healthcare professionals and scientists to precisely describe the position, orientation, and movement of various structures within the human body. As an aspiring anatomy student, your understanding and mastery of directional terminology are important to effectively communicate and navigate the intricacies of the human form. For this essay, demonstrate your comprehension of directional terminology by addressing the following situation using at least 10 directional terms. You can use your imagination, as long as the details all make sense and are consistent with their meaning and with the description provided.
Imagine you are a sports medicine physician assessing a professional soccer player who has just suffered a knee injury on the field. The player presents with a torn anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and a partial tear of the medial collateral ligament (MCL). Use precise anatomical language to explain the location of the injuries and the implications for the player's stability and mobility.

Possible Essay Questions

In the world of anatomy, directional terminology serves as a universal language that allows healthcare professionals and scientists to precisely describe the position, orientation, and movement of various structures within the human body. As an aspiring anatomy student, your understanding and mastery of directional terminology are important to effectively communicate and navigate the intricacies of the human form. For this essay, demonstrate your comprehension of directional terminology by addressing the following situation using at least 10 directional terms. You can use your imagination, as long as the details all make sense and are consistent with their meaning and with the description provided.
Imagine you are a dermatologist examining a patient with a skin condition. The patient has a circular, raised, rash with a central clearing on their lower leg. Use precise directional terminology to describe the location of the rash, and discuss potential issues for other systems.